Policies and Strategies for Market Failure

Policies and Strategies for Market Failure 1.0 Introduction Market failure refers to a situation whereby a freely-functioning market fails to allocate resources efficiently or optimally resulting in undesirable outcomes. Main examples of market failures include market power, externalities, unequal distribution of economic prosperity and inadequate public goods. Market power occurs when economic actors are able to exert considerable influence on market prices or the quantity of goods sold causing concentration of power and imperfect competition. Externalities are the uncompensated impact caused when the market disregard external costs of an economic activity on the well-being of a bystander. Externalities diverge social costs of benefit from the private optimum, leading to market failure as well. Unequal distribution of economic prosperity occurs as people are rewarded according to their ability in generating high income by producing things others are willing to pay off. Markets fail as significant differences in income and wealth leads to a wide gap in living standards between different groups in the economy. Market also fails when there are inadequate public goods which are not provided by the market mainly because of the free rider issue[1]. Hence public policies are required to correct market failure and increase the efficiency and productivity of the market. This ensures that the market is able to achieve the highest total social welfare, thus allowing a greater distribution of income and wealth and higher standard of living. 2.0 Public Policies Public policies are basically described as attempts taken by the government as an approach towards public issues and are commonly incorporated in legislations, regulations, decisions and actions (Venus 2010). Examples of public policies that can be taken to remedy market failure are legislations and regulations, implementation of taxes, subsidies and price controls. 2.1 Legislations and Regulations Legislation is a law which has been enacted by a governing body whereas regulation is a rule or restriction promulgated to control activities of businesses and consumers. There are two forms of regulations, namely industry regulation which prevents firms from gaining and exploiting excessive market control; and social regulation which protects consumers from social costs like externalities, socially undesirable goods and asymmetric information. Examples include price regulations or orders prohibiting collusive practices and monopolistic behaviours which help reduce concentration of market power. Legislations regarding the protection of the environment can also be enforced to reduce externalities like pollution. Legislations and regulation are also an example of command-and-control policies which are specifically targeted at reducing externalities. Command-and-control policies correct externalities by regulating behaviours directly, making them either required or forbidden. This is usually carried out by respective environmental agencies or commissions of a country, for instance the Environmental Protection Agency in United States which restrict levels of pollution and emissions emitted by factories and industries. 2.2 Taxes Taxes are a financial charge or levy imposed upon an individual or entity. Taxes can be used to regulate the market, redistribute income and reduce externalities through the manipulation of the demand and supply curves in the market. Even so, the tax imposed must be equal to the external cost or benefit to achieve the optimal quantity of output. A form of tax is environment levy which is imposed on firms to make them pay for the negative externalities they created. Taxes can also be imposed on undesirable goods to increase their price and reduce the quantity demanded or even used to compel people to pay for public goods to overcome the free rider issue. Similarly, taxes imposed in accordance with income earned helps reduce the market failure of income differentials. At the same time, taxes also helps increase governments revenue which can be spent on alternatives such as direct provision of public goods and services to compensate for the lack of collective goods. Tax is also part of market-based policies, developed specifically to reduce externalities. Market-based policies internalize externalities by providing incentives so that private decision makers will solve the externalities themselves. An example corrective taxes used to persuade private firms to take account of social costs that arise from negative externalities. Effect of tax on the market can be seen in Diag. 1. Tax imposed on a product would increase its price, effecting both consumers and producers. As production cost increases, the supply curve will shift to the left from S to S1 as producers would decrease the products supply. Since the price of the good is now more expensive, the quantity demanded by consumers would also decrease as seen in the change from Q2 to Q1. However, should the demand of the good be inelastic, taxes would fail to create any significant reduction in the demand of the good as shown in the diagram. For example, cigarettes. 2.3 Subsidies Subsidies, also known as negative tax, are financial assistance provided to businesses or economic sectors. Subsidies are used to assist small and potential firms by reducing their production cost so that they are able to compete against larger firms. They can also come in forms of loans or research and development grants to assist firms in their research to produce products of better quality. This reduces the barriers to entry and simultaneously increases competition among firms in the market besides effectively solving under consumption of resources, a positive externality. Furthermore, subsidies can increase socially desirable goods and assist in the redistribution of income. Even so, the subsidy imposed must be equal to the external cost or benefit to achieve the optimal quantity of output. Effect of subsidies on the market can be seen in Diag. 2. Subsidies imposed on a product would reduce its price, effecting both the consumer and producer. Production cost decrease as producers receive assistance and the supply curve will shift to the right from S to S1 as producers would increase supply. Since the price of the good has now reduced, the quantity demanded by consumers would also decrease as seen in the change from Q to Q1. 2.4 Price Controls Price control is a form of public policy where the government uses its law-making power to regulate prices of goods or services. The government may attempt to fix and enforce exact prices of a particular good or service sold or set a ceiling price or floor price (Johnson 2005). Government will then be able to assist consumers and producers with the impact it has on consumer demand and production of the good or service. Price ceiling is the legal maximum price which a good can be sold at but not any lower than that. An example would be rent control to help poor consumers which cannot afford housing. Price ceiling only takes effect when it is imposed below the equilibrium price as shown in Graph A as producers are forced to meet the maximum price set. However, this may result in shortages (Graph A) as the lower price will increase demand for the product. Price floor is the legal minimum price that can be charged but transactions at higher prices are prohibited. An example is the minimum wage laws which increases workers standard of living. Price floor only takes effect when it is imposed above the equilibrium price as shown in Graph B as suppliers have to raise their prices to meet the governments minimum price. However, a surplus may occur (Graph B) as the higher price will decrease consumers demand. 3.0 Conclusion As a conclusion, it can be seen that markets require public policies and government intervention in order to function effectively and achieve the objectives of producers, especially small and potential firms; and consumers. Market failure can be redressed through enforcement of legislations and regulations, taxes and subsidies and price control which are able to increase competitiveness, redistribute income and reduce externalities and socially undesirable goods. Although the implementation of these policies are useful in reducing negative impacts on the economy and basically have positive implications, there are also drawbacks. For instance, legislations and regulations are difficult and expensive to enforce whereas subsidies requires a government to first have sufficient financial means which prevents all countries from carrying them out efficiently. Price control also results in surplus and shortages of products they are imposed on in the long run which will also lead to inefficie nt allocation of resources. Hence, governments should always analyze the economy carefully and critically and carry out policies accordingly to prevent any further deteriorating of the economy. 4.0 References Books: Mankiw, N. G. 2008, Essentials of Economics, 5th Edn, South West Cengage Learning, United States Webster, N. 2005, Economics, 2nd Edn, Greg Eather, Adelaide Websites: Johnson, P. M. 2005, Price Controls: A Glossary of Political Economy Terms, retrieved 16 March 2010, The Smartacus Corportion 2009, Government Intervention: Price Ceiling, retrieved 17 March 2010, The Smartacus Corportion 2009, Government Intervention: Price Floor, retrieved 17 March 2010, Venus, D. 2010, What is Public Policy, retrieved 16 March 2010, Watkins, T. n.d., Impact of an Excise Tax on Subsidy on Price, retrieved 17 March 2010,

How Noise Affects Memory and Learning

According to past studies background and low-level noise in homes, work, and school, disrupts concentration and lowers the performance of people while learning and studying. For example, Anderson and Fuller (2010) looked at the effects of music on reading comprehension. Their results state the music environment reading comprehension score was lower than the non-music environment score. Even though this study was done with music, no matter what type of sound it is, it will bother someone's concentration and performance on a task.A study has shown having ackground white noise while performing a task, such as word recall, will produce low performance (KJellberg, LJung, ; Hallman, 2008). It also depends on the type of population you are trying to study. For some populations, the predictions of noise being a distraction, is stronger. For example, people with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder are more vulnerable to distractions than people without ADHD or any other type of disorder (Soderlund, Sikstrom, Loftenes, ; Sonuga-Barke, 2010).This introduction will further examine the effects of noise on learning and memory. Music and Learning/Memory It has been shown that music has a negative effect on reading performance (Anderson r am ; Vizard, 2011). Anderson and Fuller (201 investigation of the effect of lyrical music on reading comprehension by adolescents. They used the reading comprehensions subtest of the Gates-MacGinitie Reading tests, 4th edition. The music that was used in this study was taken from the Billboard Magazine's (2006) top hit singles.Anderson and Fuller (2010) tested three hypotheses; (1) a difference exists between reading comprehension scores completed in the environment without music and scores obtained with lyrical music playing in he background, (2) a gender difference exists regarding comprehension scores completed in the environment without music and scores obtained with background music, and (3) a relationship exists between degree of p reference for studying with music and scores obtained on reading comprehension tests completed in either the environment without music or with music playing in the background (Anderson & Fuller, 2010).The results of this experiment were that across experimental groups of this study, the music environment reading scores were lower in the music group compared to the no music group. About three-quarters of the students who took the test did less well while listening to music in the background. This means hypothesis 1 was accepted in this study. Girls had a greater decline in scores under the music environment compared with the non-music environment than did boys, which means hypothesis 2 was accepted.Hypothesis 3 was only semi-accepted because the students total music preference score was not related to their reading comprehension score, but the total music preference score was correlated with the reading comprehension difference score (music vs. no music). The students, who were asked if they usually listen to music while studying, and said yes, had a lower reading comprehension score in both noise conditions (Anderson & Fuller, 2010).Anderson and Fuller (2010) explain that these results happened because students paid more attention to the lyrics depending on if they were listening to the songs and artists they liked or did not like. Perham and Vizard (2011) conducted a study to explore whether the preference of background music influences performance in more realistic cognitive settings, such as doing everyday tasks. According to Perham nd Vizard (2011) research suggests that listening to background music prior to task performance increases cognitive processes, such as attention and memory, through the mechanism of increasing arousal and positive mood.Their hypothesis was if this mood and arousal extends to more common and realistic music, then the preference for background music while studying should show greater recall performance while listening to liked mus ic than disliked music in the background. If the preference of music shows no effect, then performance should be the same in both liked and disliked music conditions. In this study done by Perham and Vizard (201 1), their procedure was done by selecting music by asking their participants to bring in music they have listened to on a daily basis, and they excluded people who like to listen to thrash metal music.The results of this test were only correct if an item was recalled in the exact same position in which it was presented, which showed that performance was best in the quiet condition. The liked music condition, in which participants brought in their own music, showed the highest rating for the likeability and pleasantness properties. The quiet condition was less distracting than the other ound conditions. Disliked music, which was the thrash metal, was rated as being more ottensive than the other sound conditions.Even though the results ot this study showed that the liked music condition was the highest rated condition, performance was actually as poor in this condition as the disliked, thrash metal, condition. This study showed that no matter what type of music you listen to, either liked or disliked, both are evenly disruptive. Memory and learning in regular white noise The influence of distracting noise has been studied in children with attention deficit disorder. A study done by Soderlund, et al. 2010), predicted that inattentive children would be enhanced by adding background white noise while attentive children's performance would decline.There were two noise conditions used during this study, which was a high noise condition, and a low noise condition. In the high noise condition, verb-noun sentences were given during the auditory background noise (78 decibels). In the low noise condition, sentences were presented without noise. The results showed that both groups performed at the same level across both sound conditions, but the interaction between noise and the two groups was ignificant. Inattentive children performed better in the high noise condition rather than the low noise condition, but the opposite happened with the attentive children.This study also had to do with reading comprehension. Before the study had started, the inattentive and attentive children were tested for their reading level scores, and the inattentive children had a much lower reading level compared to the attentive children. With these results, there was a negative correlation between reading skills and a positive effect of these scores with the noise in the background, a positive orrelation between attention and reading ability, and a positive correlation between teacher ratings of the children being inattentive and their hyperactivity.This study showed that there was a significant improvement in performance for the children rated by their teachers as inattentive, and a decline in performance for those rated as attentive as noise levels were increas ed. KJellberg, et al. (2008) studied the effect of white noise on word recall. They predicted that (1) recall of words is better without background noise, (2) recognition of sentences is less sensitive to the noise han the recall of words, but background noise prolongs response times, and (3) the expected noise effect on recall and recognition will be weaker for subjects with high working memory capacity.There was a free recall of long word lists that was performed with and without background noise. Working memory capacity was tested with a test of reading span. A third test was done with sentence recognition in the same conditions done in the word recall test. This sentence recognition test was less of a resource for results, but was included for the measurement of response times in both noise conditions. For the results of this study, the word lists were split up into three parts (first, 10, middle 30, last 10).The reason for splitting up the second, third, and fourth groups of 10 words was that in these groups, many subjects did not recall any item correctly. In line with the hypotheses, subjects remembered less of the words when presented with background noise. Recognition of sentences was found to be unaffected by the noise, and the performance of this task was unrelated to reading span. The hypothesis was confirmed regarding performance of the word recall task, but not for the sentence recognition task.The effects of noise were apparent on the recall of the first and last part of the word list, which shows that retrieval from a short term and long memory storage were both impaired by noise. The hypothesis stating that noise ettects were expected to be less sever tor persons with a better working memory capacity as defined by their reading performance was strongly supported from the noise effect on the recall of the last part of the word list. The hypothesis that word recall was rated as more difficult than sentence recognition in the noise condition was also accepted.For the last of the results for this study, here was a shorter response time with noise in the sentence recognition task. There were more misses with the shorter response time. This does not confirm the hypothesis that decisions should take longer in the noise condition, and there is no obvious explanation for this result. How memory is affected by road traffic noise and meaningful irrelevant speech. The influence of road traffic noise and meaningful irrelevant speech was studied by Boman (2004), Enmarker (2004), and Hygge, Boman, and Enmarker (2003).Boman (2004) predicted that the encoding of new verbal episodic information should be mpaired by both road traffic noise and meaningful irrelevant speech, but the impairment for the encoding will be stronger for the meaningful irrelevant speech, and the impairment will be more for the recall than the recognition of a text in episodic memory. It was expected that both recall and recognition in a text reading task when expos ed to noise during the encoding part would be impaired by noise sources, but the cued recall and meaningful irrelevant speech would be more pronounced.Performance on free and cued recall from the sentences encoded with and without enactment (such as â€Å"roll the ball† or â€Å"kick the ball) would be impaired by oise, but the self-performed enactments will produce a better memory performance, and will withstand both noise conditions. It was expected that intentional memory, and recognition of given names, would be impaired by noise. Like the rest of the predictions for this study, irrelevant speech would be more of an impairment than the road traffic noise.For recognition from non-verbal material (faces) no noise effects were expected because the face recognition test could be assumed to provide enough cues for memory retrieval. An interaction between noise and gender was expected, while girls performance on free and cued recall from the pisodic memory tasks would not be a ffected as bad as boys during noise exposure. To examine the predicted role of attention on episodic memory, attention was measured by a search and memory task.A speech accuracy trade off (SATO) – which is we prefer accuracy over the speed of getting something done – was expected with more lines of the tasks completed in noise, but at a lower accuracy. Boman (2004) split up the results section into five parts. In all of these analyses, the direct effects of noise, gender, and the interactions between noise and gender were all assessed. Episodic memory was assessed first. For cued recall and recognition of text, meaningful irrelevant speech impaired cued recall as expected, but there was no effect of gender or an interaction between gender and noise found for cued recall.In line with the predictions, the analysis for the recognition items also showed a main effect of noise. There was a better recognition in silence than irrelevant speech, but there was no difference bet ween silence and road traffic noise. For free and cued recall of sentences, neither the effect of noise nor the interaction between noise and gender was significant. As predicted, girls' recall performance was igher than the boys in cued recall or categories with enactment. Semantic memory was analyzed second. For word tluency, there was no significant noise ettect or interaction between noise and gender.For word comprehension, there was better word comprehension in silence than in meaningful irrelevant speech. Attention was analyzed next, and this was not impaired by noise, and since this happened, the predicted role for attention on episodic memory can be ruled out. Self-ratings were analyzed last. For affect, there was no significant difference between the three noise groups on the affect dimensions measured before both noise exposures. Meaningful irrelevant speech and road traffic noise did not differ from the silence condition.For annoyance, effort, and difficulty, there were n o significant effects of noise on self reports and the difficulty of reading. Since this happened, the distraction on the text reading tasks in silence and noise can be ruled out as an explanation of the noise effects of recall and recognition. Enmarker (2004) examined how irrelevant speech and road traffic noise affected teacher's memory and attention, and also examined whether the noise effects on memory were age dependent. Ninety-six male and female teachers were chosen to articipate and were between the ages of 35-45 and 55-65.It was predicted that (1) of noise effects on episodic memory – noise would interfere with verbal episodic memory tasks, and impair free and cued recall and recognition, but the recall was supposed to be impaired more than recognition tasks, (2) like Boman (2004), most of the episodic memory tasks, the meaningful irrelevant speech will impair the tasks more than the road traffic noise, (3) the older teachers should be less able than the younger teac hers to accurately recall, both free and cued, tasks in the noise ondition, (4) of noise effects on semantic memory – less attention requirements are needed during retrieval than during encoding.More automatic than controlled retrieval is present in more semantic memory, and this study was not sure whether noise would affect the semantic memory system, and (5) of noise affects on attention – noise would impair attention as the result of fewer resources available for the task. There will be a fast performance for answers, but most of these answers will not be accurate. For the results of this study by Enmarker (2004), younger teachers overall ad a better hearing status than the older teachers.Noise impaired cued recall of the text in episodic memory, but the impact of irrevlevant speech and road traffic noise did not differ. There was no difference between the younger and older teachers performance during noise impairment. There was no significant difference of effort m ade during text reading for subjects in silence and irrelevant speech, and also the perception of difficulty to the text. The recall of sentences with and without enactment showed no overall noise effects and no interaction between noise and age.The tasks for intentional and incidental learning and first and family names showed an overall effect of noise. Incidental learning did not show any noise effects. Intentional learning did not show any influences of noise either. There was an overall effect of noise on the three word fluency tests in semantic memory. More words were recalled in silence than in irrelevant speech. The predicted speech to accuracy effect was not supported, and neither was there any interaction between noise and age on attention. The studies done by Boman (2004) and Enmarker (2004) were replications of Hygee et al. 2003). All predictions, basic designs, procedure, and noise controls have been replicated. A types ot episodic and semantic memory tasks are also rep licated. A results have been shown to be the same across all three studies. How learning and memory are affected by aircraft noise Hygge, Evans, and Bullinger (2002) studied the effects of aircraft noise on cognitive performance. Before the opening of the new Munich, Germany airport and the destruction of the old one, children near both of these airport sites were brought in to be tested.Two groups of children, an airport noise group, and a control group – no ircraft noise – were examined. In this study, 326 children participated; 43 children who were by the old airport, were put into a no-noise group; 65 children who were by the old airport, were put into a noise group; 107 who are by the new airport, were put into a no noise group; and 111 who are by the new airport, were put into a noise group. This study assessed how children's reading was affected by changes in ambient noise levels cause by the new airport and old airport locations.On the word- list part of the re ading test, only difficult words showed differences between the groups. The airport group and the high noise exposure were significant. Reading and long term memory affects were related, but disappeared when the old airport closed, and the new airport opened. Although children's reading worsened with noise exposure at the new airport and recovered following lower noise exposure at the old airport, speech perception deficits among noise exposed children at the old airport did not recover.Performing the task in acute noise or no noise did not qualify for the interaction involving chronic aircraft noise over time, but there was a main effect of acute noise. The last was that poorer short term memory performance of the noise group recovered to reach the level of the control group's performance. Separate tests showed more correct responses in the no-noise group than in the noise group. For the conclusion of this study done by Hygge, et al. (2002) it states that noise exposure damages the development of speech perception in different ways during the early and late stages of the reading comprehension tasks.This study also raises a question about the validity of inattention or â€Å"tuning out† different noises as an explanation for the impact of noise on reading performance. How visual memory is affected during white noise A study was done by Wais and Gazzaley (2011) about the impact of auditory distraction on retrieval of visual memories. The goal of this study was to examine the effect of sound distraction on retrieval of episodic memory. Based on prior research, Wais and Gazzaley stated that there is a possibility that the environment changes may interfere with the recollection of visual memories.This study hypothesized that a comparison of effects of distraction from different sensory systems might slow down evidence for or against interference on recollection. This experiment studied the influence of sound distractions on episodic memory recollections usi ng both busy caf © sounds and white noise. There were a few different results found in this study. With auditory distractions and false alarms, there was a greater amount of false recollection during silence compared to both the white noise and the auditory distraction of a busy caf ©.Relevant visual details during the test with the busy caf © noise showed significant decline compared to white noise and silence. There was no difference between white noise and silence. These results show that auditory istraction (busy caf © noise) showed more of a distraction than white noise. It might be possible that the results ot talse alarms are greater in silence because the participants are more relaxed during this time period and might loosen their decisions. There was also a task done with visual distractions.In this experiment, the conditions corresponding to the silence, white noise, and the auditory, busy caf ©, distraction conditions in the present study were the eyes shut, eye s open with a grey screen, and eyes open with a complex natural scene. One distracting complex natural scene was presented at each trial. Stimulation during the auditory, busy caf ©, distraction is more dynamic than that from the eyes open-grey screen images (Wais & Gazzaley, 2011). The results of the visual distraction showed that recollection of relevant visual details during the auditory distraction showed low accuracy compared to silence and white noise conditions.In comparison with these studies, the present study is going to be studying how auditory distractions affect memory. The test that was presented to our participants was the digit span test and a reading comprehension test. The digit span test is used to measure working memorys umber storage capacity (Cambridge Brain Science). The participants were presented with a series of numbers (e. g. 6, 7, 9) and must repeat them back immediately, and if they do this accurately, they will be given a longer list of numbers (e. g. 6, 4, 8, 9) Oahanshahi, Saleem, Ho, Fuller, & Dirnberger, G. 2009). Both the reading comprehension test and the digit span test was presented in three different noise conditions, (1) obnoxious noise, (i. e. Jackhammer) (2) calming noise (i. e. bird chirping), and (3) no noise/regular classroom noise, such as students in the hallways, or onstruction outside the windows. A question that is being asked is how do different noise conditions affect memory for both these tasks? It was hypothesized that participants in the no noise/regular classroom noise will perform better than in the two noise conditions.Method Participants Data was collected from participants who signed up for Experimental Psychology experiments, which helped with the random sampling of the students. Seventy-one students participated in the study (57 females and 13 males) ranging from ages 18 to 24. Twenty-two subjects were in the no sound condition, twenty in the calming noise i. e. bird chirping) condition, and twent y-nine in the obnoxious noise (i. e. Jack hammer) condition. All participants gave informed consent before participating in the experiment. Only one participant reported having a hearing problem.Materials Questionnaire. A self-made questionnaire was given to each student during the experiment. This questionnaire consisted of (1) age, (2) gender (a) female or (b) male, (3) what is your current academic standing? (a) Freshman, (b) Sophomore, (c) Junior, or (d) Senior; (4) Overall GPA; (5) Do you currently wear glasses or contacts? (a) yes, or (b) o; (6) Are you hearing impaired? (a) Yes, or (b) no; (7) How do you study? (Choose all that apply) (a) silence, (b) with television, (c) with music, (d) with friends, (e) other (8) Please rate how stressed you feel when you study? (a) no stress, (b) okay, (c) great, (d) stressed, or (e) very stressed; (9) Do you better under your course material when: (a) a professor lectures (b) when you read your textbook/notes on your own, or (c) both. Rea ding Comprehension test. An 8th grade reading comprehension test was presented to the participants. The test was chosen from the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test which was tound online (Florida Department ot Education). T story is called â€Å"The Wreck of E. S. Newman† by Ruth Ewers. The story also had questions that were answered by the participants.This passage also came with the answers to these questions. Participants must pay close attention to the story because once the story is taken away from them, they were no longer able to go back and look at it. Digit Span Test. The Digit Span test was originally a subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test (WA'S) (Cambridge Brain Science). David Wechsler used the digit span test to test the participants working memory. Analysis of the digit span test suggests that participants must hold the first few items presented in memory. According to Jahanshahi, et al. 2008) the digit span test monitors incoming information, and revises updated information by changing the new items. The Digit Span test can be presented verbally, or on a computer program. In the present study, the Digit Span test was pre-recorded so that the variable was held constant and the participants will have no problem understanding what we say. Participants were presented with a string of random numbers and were asked to repeat the string of umbers forward. This means if the numbers are presented as 6-1-2, they must write those numbers down in that particular order.Participants may find themselves rehearsing the string of digits as they hear them being presented from recording. The Digit Span is scored 2, 1, or O; 2 points if the participant passes both trials, 1 point if the participant passes only one trial and O points if the participant fails both trials. Even though there are two trials, we only used one trial for this experiment and was scored using 1 point. PANAS scale. The Positive and Negative Affect schedule is a 0-item sel f-report measure of positive and negative affect developed by Watson, Clark, and Tellegen (1988).The negative scale has three subscales (1) distress, (2) unpleasureable engagement, and (3) the absence of feelings. Positive affect represents an individual with high pleasurable experiences and engagement with the environment. Emotions of happiness and alertness are indicated with the positive affect of the PANAS, and emotions of sadness and lethargy are indicated with the negative affect (Crawford & Henry, 2004). The participants were asked to read each item and list the number from the scale next to each word. This indicated the way a person feels at the present moment.The rating scale is (1) very slightly or not at all, (2) a little, (3) moderately, (4) quite a bit, and (5) extremely. The 20 words that will be presented on the PANAS scale are (1) interested, (2) distressed, (3) excited, (4) upset, (5) strong, (6) guilty, (7) scared, (8) hostile, (9) enthusiastic, (10) proud, (11) ir ritable, (12) alert, (13) ashamed, (14) inspired, (15) nervous, (16) determined, (17) attentive, (18) Jittery, (19) active, and (20) afraid. Recordings. The recordings that were used during the experiment are Jackhammers and birds chirping.These sounds ame from www. sounddogs. com and were played from a CD through the computer system from the classroom that was used to perform the experiment. The exact name for the Jackhammer sound from the website is called â€Å"Tools – Jackhammer – Ext – MCIJ – Jackhammering Concrete Long Stand. † The exact name for the bird chirping sound from the website is called â€Å"Birds – Morning – Suburban Neighborhood Morning Birds – Ext – Distant – 6:30am – Various Pretty Birds Sing ; Chirp. † Procedure The experiment was conducted in a St. Francis College classroom.Since some classrooms nave ditterent color walls, we decided to use a classroom witn white olored walls o n all sides. The participants came in and sat down anywhere they want in the classroom, and each participant was given an informed consent. The informed consent explained the basics of our experiment, how long the experiment will take, they may quit at any time, and that they will be anonymous throughout the experiment. After all participants handed in their informed consent, the experiment will start. The digit span test was given out first.As said as before, each string of numbers will be pre-recorded so there are no confounding variables. After one set of umbers is said, each participant will have to memorize that set and write it down. The string of numbers was longer each time they are presented. The reading comprehension paragraph was given next. Each participant was given the paragraph of our choice and was required to remember as much as possible from reading this paragraph. The reading comprehension paragraph was then taken away and the questionnaire was given in between th e reading paragraph and the reading comprehension quiz.This is because we are studying memory and we want to see how much they remember after five minutes. After they have finished with the questionnaire, they were given a sheet with a few questions on it asking them about the paragraph they have Just read. During the digit span test, and the reading comprehension paragraph, each group had noise playing in the background. There were three noise conditions. In the first condition, the obnoxious noise (i. e. jackhammer) was presented, during the second condition, the calming noise (i. e. birds chirping) was presented, and in our last condition, there was no noise presented.The PANAS scale was presented after the experiment was finished to see f the background noise had any effect on the participant during the experiment. After the PANAS a manipulation check was asked to see if the independent variable has had any effect on the participants, and the debriefing about the experiment was presented last. This experiment had two risks which are (1) they might have frustration during each task because of the noise in the background, and (2) because of this frustration they might receive a headache because they could not concentrate well.A benefit the participant will receive is that they may learn their own individual apabilities in learning and memory related to noise. Results The present study hypothesized that participants in the no noise/regular classroom condition will perform better than in the two noise conditions (i. e. calming and obnoxious conditions.

The Danielles Gordon Rule Architecture Essay

For my Gordon Rule Paper I have decided to compose about the Egyptians since I have ever found them intriguing. The primary subject I will be discoursing would be the manner in which the antediluvian Egyptians would see, and considered decease, due to how immensly different we as Americans view decease today. The huge bulk of Americans fear decease more than anything else. We go to great lengths to guarantee our wellness, saftey, and endurance. To us there is nil worse than decease, whereas to every Egyptian decease was seen as a desirable transmutation, ? the transition of the true ageless life? ( Guide to The Valley of The Kings page 159, 1996 ) . Death in no case was considered a calamity or an terminal but as a welcomed ansition into the Afterlife. As decease was of such an importance it was necessary that great attention be taken for a smooth passage to immortality, this is a major ground that the Pharaohs contents of the grave were of such importance. Egyptians accent on the im portance of rites, imposts and beliefs every bit good as funerary architecture can be seen clearly in the find of the grave of King Tutankhamun, or as most people know him King Tut. The planning that went into every Pharaohs grave was highly complex, as each grave was significantly different in footings of the grave layout and wall ornaments. The tombs construction and layout had to somehow reflect the formation and projection of the solar star. Wall ornaments in the grave Don? t represent the Pharaohs mundane life but that of their Afterlife and the challenges the Pharaoh has to set about in order to make the Kingdom of Orisis – land of the Afterlife. These graves were expansive and consisted of a figure of suites and courtyards, grave walls were normally stoned lined walls and limestone columns. This type of grave was built below the land, as normally the chapel was built on the surface and the burial Chamberss below the land. Rock cut chapels were more normally used by Pha raohs and those of the richer society as the bouldery parts of Egypt best suited the edifice of these graves. The Nile country was bouldery and featured many drops, so these were first-class locations for the film editing of the graves straight in the hillside. The most common chapel consisted of a door which lead into a transverse hall, behind which was a corridor that ran directly to the drop. Over clip stone grave became more luxuriant, and became more cosmetic and narrower as they now ran straight into the drop, these graves were the most impressing of all the grave in Egypt, as they featured expansive frontages frequently with pillars and big staircases. Tombs contained wall ornaments, which dealt with the Afterlife and the way the Pharaoh will take to make the land of Orisis. A royal grave could be completed within a few months for a simple grave or for a more larger and complex grave it varied from six to ten old ages. Decorations varied for each Pharaoh from luxuriant pictur es to imitations of papyrus. All texts painted on walls were taken from? the great charming faith anthologies of the clip such as the Book of the Dead and the Book of the Earth? ( Guide to the Valley of The Kings page26, 1996 ) . These charming and spiritual texts were drawn on the walls for the deceased to inform, and usage as a valuable tool for them to do certain that they had adequate cognition of charming expressions for them to utilize during the Afterlife. The New Kingdom royal graves featured ceiling ornaments, which included star maps, which represented the day-to-day birth of the Sun. Puting a burial underneath a symbolic symbol was considered of great importance for the Resurrection of the organic structure. Texts and drawings on grave walls contained assorted colorss ; each coloring material used represent Egyptian rites. Colorss such as white represents Silver, Blackrepresented decease and ageless saving and Red represents fire and blood. As a lead up to the star the li fe of the deceased is painted, including all facets of the asleep households life. Today we chiefly bury our loved 1s in conformity with thier wants, or in a cemetery next to other asleep loved 1s. We bury them six pess under-ground, ( typically ) but merely because that is the minimum deepness a disintegrating cadaver can be buried without holding any consequence on the universe under-which it was buried. Typically it takes about seven yearss from the clip we die untill we are laid to rest. That allows us plentifulness of clip to take a good grave sight, excavation it up, lay the dead down, state some sort words, and make full the hole once more. Ancient Egyptians, on the other manus, took well longer.Before a organic structure was buried the procedure of embalming took topographic point for 70 yearss. Historian Herodotus Tells of three classs of mummification that depended upon the sum of money the deceased had. The most expensive process was the embalming which resembled the God Osiris. The ritual took topographic point normally within 70 yearss and a contract was drawn up between the embalmer? s and the asleep household, which specifies the sum of clip the embalming process will take topographic point. The organic structure was so placed on a wooden tabular array and was purified by rinsing the organic structure in a solution of Nutron. The encephalon was removed from thenasal pit, and the venters was cut and all variety meats were removed and so purified with olfactory property. Once the variety meats were removed they were placed into jars and placed inside the grave. The organic structure is so stuffed with straw, sawdust, clay or linen ; this assists in retaining the deaths organic structures form and is besides wrapped with linen and patchs. Egyptian rites and beliefs besides played an highly of import portion in the lead up to a asleep entombment. The instillment of the entombment, and its grave content, takes topographic point outside the grave. The conveyance of thebody to the grave took signifier of a ritual emanation that usually began on the East bank of the Nile River. After traversing the river to the West the organic structure was placed on a sleigh and drawn by cattle to the grave. Close to the mummy stood two adult females who usually were used to portray the diving grievers Isis and Nephthys who represented the married woman and sister of the God Osiris followed by grievers of the deceased. The last griever in the emanation burnt incense and sprinkled milk at the emanation as they wound their manner to the grave. Ritual terpsichoreans, known as Muu and a priest who honours the deceased now greet the emanation. The ancient rite of the â€Å" gap of the oral cavity † now takes topographic point ; this is the most important portion of the burial traditions, as the intent of this ceremonial is to reconstruct the ma and their power of address, sight and hearing.The organic structure has now completed the first port ion of Egyptian rites. When the asleep approaches the Entrance of the grave a priest who impersonates the God Anubis stands the organic structure in an unsloped place. The priest now touches the oral cavity of the deceased with ritual instruments, which now restores their senses. The following phase is the offering of apparels, unctions and offerings of nutrient so the asleep can take them into the Afterlife. The ma is now ready to be placed into it? s burial chamber, after the door is sealed all footmarks around the grave is swept off and the last rites are read. The phases taking up to the entombment of the deceased was an built-in portion of the Egyptians beliefs and rites, as the Egyptians regarded the dead as being really much alive, populating in their graves like they had antecedently lived in their places. This nexus between the house and the grave was really of import, the grave chapel was normally referred to? the house of infinity? . Outside the chapel it was common to see alcoholics gardens, and tombs environing as Cemeteries were planned to look like illumination metropoliss like the one at Giza. All the above beliefs and rites were clearly uncovered in November 1922 by British archeologist Howard Carter when he discovered the integral grave of King Tutankhamun. Analysis of Tutankhaman? s ma reveals that he was aproxamatly 18 old ages old when he died. The Kings life is still a enigma to this twenty-four hours as historiographers such as Carter believes that it? s about impossible to state whether the King was a victim of unwellness, accident, blackwash or was physically frail like his old inheritors when he passed off. Historians identified the month of his decease to be that of January by analyzing the types of fruit and flowers such as the strawflower which were buried with him. The strawflower normally reaches adulthood in March, and from these findings it is believed that? Amenophis III last boy died some clip in January 1343? ( Tutankhamun and the Discovery of the Tomb page 158, 1972 ) . Tutankhamuns grave features a simple design, which is typical of the Eighteenth Dynasty. The grave features starts, corridors, and Chamberss. The male monarch grave has a figure of suites such as the Annexe, Antechamber, Burial Chamber and the exchequer and all of these suites featured important ornaments. King Tutankhamens grave was so alone as the hoarded wealths inside the grave lay undisturbed to robbers, and during digging Carter recovered over three thousand five 100 articles such as expansive elegant furniture, statues, jewelry, and shrines that were placed in his grave to assist him through to the Afterlife.The male monarchs decease like other Pharaohs was a expansive matter, and was mourned by all of Egypt. By and large after a Pharaohs decease there was a three-month interval between his decease and his entombment. During this clip the complex rite of embalming took topographic point. The embalming of a Pharaoh was known as the? House of Vigor? ( Tutankhamen: Life and Death of a Pharaoh page 163, 1965 ) in which the Pharaohs organic structure was purified and all drosss were removed. After the concluding stage of the mummification ritual takes topographic point, the Pharaoh now passes into infinity. When King Tutankhamuns organic structure was bandaged, each bed contained a hoarded wealth such as aureate objects. When the Kings organic structure was unwrapped over 143 hoarded wealths were found such as pendents, talismans and aureate cots. Like the hoarded wealths wrapped in between the patchs the grave itself was fluxing with hoarded wealths, ? About everything was made of cherished stuff, and gold? this covered a broad mixture of articles necessary to guarantee infinity for the dead? ( Tutankhamun and the Discovery of the Tomb page 70, 1972 ) . All of the Kings suites inside the grave featured important ornaments. The Antechamber held the Tuta royal throne, which is one of the best known objects, found inside the grave. This throne engaged wood with sheets of gold and its dorsum is covered with a scene of the Pharaoh and his married woman Ankhesenamun. The burial chamber features the first wooden casket and the Kings ma. The scenes painted on walls show King Tutankhamun with his Ka at the ceremonial of the? gap of the oral cavity? ( The Discovery of the Tomb Tutankhamun page 37, 1977 ) and his replacement Ay. His burial bay the? ruddy quartzite sarcophagus? ( The Discovery of the Tomb Tutankhamun page 39, 1977 ) casket had five caskets, the first to the 3rd were apelike wooden caskets, the Forth was aureate and the fifth was his ma. The King Tutankhamuns entombment was the same as any Pharaoh and followed all rites and beliefs every bit good as mummification rules. The lone difference was that the King was so immature at the clip of his decease and that boulder clay this twenty-four hours no other grave has been uncovered that all points inside the grave are still integral.It can be seen that burial and decease in general in Egypt was of tremendous importance within the Egyptian society particularly when it was refering person of h igher position like that of a Pharaoh. Egyptians believed in the Afterlife and this played an of import portion in reenforcing the rites and beliefs of decease in Egyptian society as decease was non believed to be the terminal but the beginning of 1s life. This is why rites and beliefs every bit good as architecture and ornaments of graves were emphasised and carried out in the visible radiation of 1s decease. When an antediluvian Egyptian died, he was non buried into the land, mourned and so bury, as people are today. Nor was his grave merely visited at certain times and some nominal words spoken over it, so that one time once more he is forgotten until following visit, like so many of us do. Maybe its the manner we as people have evolved to get by with the hurting of fring a loved one. We as a state do non believe that decease is a good thing in any manner, and we are taught from bith to fear it and fly it for every bit long as we perchance can. I for one bash non fear decease. No t that I look upon it as a good thing like Egyptians, merely as a nessesary thing that all of us must hold happen.

Character Analysis Of The Movie 12 Angry Men - 764 Words

In the movie Twelve Angry Men, Henry Fonda is the eighth jury member but is also known as Mr. Davis. Henry Fonda’s role is one of the most important throughout the movie. But, throughout the movie it involves eleven other jurors that have significant contributions and differences, that discuss the murder trial for an eighteen year old boy. The audience of the movie will watch the twelve jury members discuss the murder trial of an eighteen year old boy whose been accused of killing his father. At the beginning of the movie all jurors proceed a vote saying the boy is guilty of the murder but one juror votes not guilty. In the movie 12 Angry Men cause people to question their own morals and beliefs, but the overall outcome of the movie shows†¦show more content†¦Even though these characters have valid points about the boy and stick to the hard evidence. These three jurors are blind to the outside information and have a hard time looking further into the case to find othe r logic in the situation. â€Å"It is important to realize that not all questions are geniune ones† (Roth 400). Juror number three by the end finally realizes his out of control behavior caused his life to be full of anger. His realization made him realize his morals were harshly mistaken. Even though some of these characters were out of control, they still found honesty in their beliefs and did not give up the original evidence. Later in the movie the jurors found spots in the evidence that did not match up. Many people can relate to these characters by situations of standing their ground for something and being honest with people in situations like this. There are two other characters that many can relate to. Juror nine and two are two characters that don’t get to speak much in the movie. Others tend to speak over them or get interrupted by other characters. All the other jurors don’t give these two characters their time to voice their thoughts. Juror number n ine was played by an older man that was one of the wisest characters in the movie. Juror number nines caring and compassion towards the young boy on trial makes this character easy to relate to. Juror number three was quiet and unsure of his decisions. He was very easy to be persuaded by theShow MoreRelated12 Angry Men: Communication Analysis Paper1046 Words   |  5 PagesSPCM 8:00a MWF April 17, 2006 Communication Analysis Paper 12 Angry Men For an in-depth look into the workings of small groups few movies have offered more than the beloved classic, 12 Angry Men. A small group is defined as group of approximately 5 to 12 people who share a common purpose and follow similar organizing rule. 12 Angry Men, as its title suggests, depicts a story of exactly 12 men who form such a group. 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